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Tuesday, October 11, 2011

supercar

Supercar History - The Birth of the Supercar



Sports cars started to appear in the late 40's with the introduction of 'sporting' road cars from now famous marques such as Ferrari, Jaguar, Lotus and Porsche. In those days, the ethos of the sports car was a car designed not only for the road but for motorsport competition aswell.

Through the 50's and early 60's sports car performance progressed. 1954 saw the arrival of one of the all time classics the Mercedes 300SL 'Gull Wing'. It's fuel injected 3 litre produced over 240bhp giving a claimed top speed of 165mph. Also, as far back as 1957, the Chevrolet Corvette was capable of hitting 60mph in under 6 seconds, while the Z102 from little known manufacturer Pegaso was rumoured to be good for 160mph!

As the 60's dawned Aston Martin and Ferrari both offered 150mph plus vehicles in the shape of the DB4GT Zagato and 400 Superamerica models respectively, but it was Jaguar that stunned the world with the introduction in 1961 of the legendary E-type. Ferrari then created a limited number of what is now the world's most valuable classic, the timeless 160mph 250 GTO. Lamborghini entered the fray in 1964 with the 350GT, joined by Iso with the Grifo and TVR with the original Griffith. But it was to be Ford who would change the face of sports cars with what many people believe to be the first supercar, the GT40.

Ford wanted racing success and to that end tried to buy Ferrari in the early 60's. Ferrari said no! Ford didn't take kindly to this and so vowed to out-do Ferrari with their own racing car, so in 1965 the GT40 was born. To meet regulations Ford had to make a number of 'road legal' versions of the GT40, hence its inclusion here as the first supercar for the road. In the late 60's Ford went on to make seven Mark III GT40's - 'softened' for road use (with a mere 310bhp!).

1965 saw another candidate for the title world's first supercar, the brutal AC Cobra 427. American racer Caroll Shelby decided to shoe-horn a 427 cu in (hence the name) Ford V8 into a lightweight British sports car, the AC Ace. The result was a car of astounding performance - 160mph, 0-60mph in 4.2 sec and 0-100mph in 10 (record acceleration figures that would stand for over 20 years).

1966 was an eventful year with the introduction of the 165mph Ferrari 275GTB, the 7 litre Corvette Sting Ray and the first 4-wheel drive road car, the Jensen FF. However, overshadowing all these was, in my opinion, the first true supercar for the road, the gorgeous Lamborghini Miura. The Miura was the first production car to feature a mid-mounted engine and so its appearance was radically different to any road car that had come before. Performance from the V12 was equally radical, over 170mph was possible for those brave enough to try it!

Just a few months after the launch of the Miura, Maserati introduced the Ghibli. More Gran Turismo that supercar, the Ghibli offered 160mph performance but coupled with a luxurious environment (it even had air con, rare at the time). This same year saw another Giugiaro styled Italian supercar, the De Tomaso Mangusta along with the Swiss made Monteverdi 375.

1968 saw the birth of a legend. Lamborghini had moved the goalposts with the Miura so Ferrari hit back with their first entry into the supercar league, the 365 GTB 'Daytona'. Although it still used the 'old-style' front engine layout, with 175mph and 60mph in 5.5 sec the Daytona was a performance match for its Modena rival.

Four years after the Mangusta, De Tomaso launched what was to be their biggest selling car by far, the Pantera. A purposeful Italian body housed the ubiquitous Ford V8. The Pantera typified the 'wedge' style that was to become the trademark look of the supercar throughout the 70's, bought to the fore by leading stylists such as Bertone's Gandini and Ital Design's Giugiaro and echoed in the Maserati Bora of 1971. Porsche proved to be the exception to this rule with their much sought after lightweight 911 2.7 RS of 1972.

In the early 70's the supercar was sent reeling by the oil crisis. With petrol prices quadrupling, gas guzzling performance cars were suddenly not an attractive proposition - even more so when in a knee-jerk reaction the US established a ridiculous 55mph speed limit! Thankfully there were still enough people out there who couldn't do without the thrill of a powerful engine, so the performance car was safe.

Ironically, in the face of the fuel crisis, 1974 saw the introduction of two of the most powerful and significant supercars to date, the beautiful Ferrari 365 BB and the 'King of Supercars' the astounding Lamborghini Countach LP400. Following the new supercar trend, Ferrari decided that the BB should be mid-engined (a first for the Ferrari flagship). Performance was on a par with the outgoing Daytona, 175mph and 60mph in 5.5sec, but handling was vastly improved. The BB's perennial rival the Countach could be accurately described as the most stunning shape to ever hit the road. Bertone's lines encompassed a mighty V12 giving 170mph plus performance. The Countach would go on, in all its incarnations, to be the definitive supercar for another 15 years.

1975 was another important year in the supercar world with the introduction of the original Porsche 911 Turbo. Although BMW gave us the first Turbo road car two years earlier with the 2002, it was Porsche who would become known for pioneering the technology. The 12 year old design of the 911 was augmented in the turbo by the use of aerodynamic spoilers, the first road car to feature these now common styling features.

The 1977 Panther 6 was undoubtedly one of the most bizarre entrants in the supercar hall of fame. Whether it can be classed as a production car is debatable as only two were made, nevertheless this 8.2 litre twin-turbo charged 6-wheeler may well have been the first road car to be capable of 200mph (although this was never proven).

As the 70's drew to a close we were greeted by two new supercars from established names, both offering a different approach to high performance. The Aston Martin V8 Vantage used the time proven big engine, big power route. At 170mph it had a good claim for the title of world's fastest production car. Meanwhile BMW's M1 went the technology route. Designed to be the most efficient supercar of it's day, it remains BMW's only mid-engined road car. As a footnote, 1979 may have seen the world's first 200mph road car in the form of the Koenig Ferrari Boxer. Not a production car in the strictest sense but a significant milestone nevertheless.

The 1980's began with Lotus' entry into the premier league with the Turbo Esprit. Although top speed was respectable at around 150mph, it was acceleration and handling that defined it as a supercar. The early 80's also saw one of the most astonishing cars ever to come out of Britain, the outrageous 192mph Aston Martin Bulldog. Although only one was ever made, for it's looks and performance alone it deserves it's place in supercar history. The mid 80's also saw new competitors for the ongoing battle for supremacy between Ferrari and Lamborghini with the introduction of the 180mph Testarossa and the 455bhp upgrade of the Lamborghini Countach QV.

The 80's, however, would be remembered for two things - the financial boom that sent elite car values soaring and, probably as a consequence of this, the birth of the hypercar! It all started with the emergence of the Group B racing class. To be eligible to compete, manufacturers had to produce at least 200 road going version of their competition cars. While short lived it may have been, Group B provided us with a selection of awesome road cars that moved performance onto a new plane, the first of which was the sublime Ferrari 288 GTO.



Supercar History - The Hypercar



The GTO's twin-turbo V8 endowed it with genuine 190mph performance and a 0-60 time of under 5 seconds (the first road car to achieve this since the 1965 AC Cobra). Racing materials and technology played a large part in the make up of the GTO, as they did in the next in the hypercar line the fascinating Porsche 959. The 959 was a technological 'tour de force'. Its 6 speed gearbox and 4-wheel drive powered the Porsche to 197mph with acceleration to 60mph in 3.9sec - the first car under 4sec, breaking the Cobra's 20 year old record.

Ferrari took up the challenge of the 959 and on their 40th birthday, in 1987, gave us the first road car genuinely capable of 200mph, the F40. A true racer for the road, the F40 is most experts choice as the greatest drivers car ever made. Top speed was 201mph with 60mph from rest in 3.9sec and even more impressive 100mph from rest in 7.8sec (beating the 959 by a second).



The 80's signed off with four new members of the 150mph club, the 928S4 and 944 Turbo from Porsche, the 190mph Zagato from Aston Martin, while Ford came out with a junior-supercar for the masses with the Sierra RS Cosworth, offering incredible value for money at around £20k (if you could afford the insurance!). Topping them all however, was the awesome Ruf CTR 'Yellowbird', the world's fastest car at a verified 213mph! 1989 saw the first Japanese supercars in the shape of the Nissan 300ZX, closely followed by the first incarnation of cult favourite the Skyline GTR.

1990 was a significant year, for it signaled the end of the reign of the definitive supercar, the Lamborghini Countach. All was not lost though as its successor, the 202mph Diablo, would become one of the most awe inspiring experiences that you can have on four wheels! In a busy year we also saw the re-emergence of TVR as a supercar force with the gorgeous Griffith roadster, Honda also entered the fray with the superb handling and totally reliable NSX - a car your great granny could drive and Chevrolet introduced the 180mph Corvette ZR1.

The biggest controversy of the year however, was the launch of the Lotus Carlton. We were greeted with Newspaper headlines predicting armageddon at the hands of this 175mph five seater. It didn't happen!

The boom period of the 80's was now well and truly over, sky high supercar prices were now settling down to a saner level - which was bad news for speculators and the Jaguar XJ220. Court cases ensued as people realized their £400,000 'investment' had turned into fools gold. It is a shame that this is what such an exceptional car will be remembered for.

On a lighter note, the same year saw the re-birth of a famous name from the past with the 1991 introduction of the quad-turbo Bugatti EB110, at the time the fastest car in the world at 218mph.

America finally gave us a rival to the Corvette with the beastly 8 litre Dodge Viper offering 165mph and 0-60mph in under 5sec. However, the performance goalposts were about to be moved once again, this time so far that no-one else has yet reached them, because in 1993 came the fastest supercar of all time, the McLaren F1.



The McLaren's performance figures read like those of a Le Mans car. 240mph, 0-60mph in 3.2sec and 0-100mph in just 6.3sec (this would be a fast time to 60mph in a 'normal' sports car). Just 100 were made and at £634,000 you can probably see why. But the F1's place in history is secure. In the current climate of speed phobia and ever tighter environmental restrictions we may never see its like again.

If 1993 bought us the fastest ever car then 1994 may have bought us the best, the Ferrari F355. The 355 was the complete car. Very fast, superb handling and gorgeous Pininfarina bodywork - all in a package that could be used every day. This year also saw the launch of two four-seater supercars, both capable of breezing their occupants along at over 170mph in leather lined luxury - the Ferrari 456, and the motorsport developed BMW M5.

The Ferrari F50 of 1995 was billed as a Grand Prix car for the road. Offering 200mph+ performance, the F50 featured what was in essence an early 90's Formula One engine from Alain Prost's company car! In a busy period for Ferrari, we were also greeted by their first front engined flagship since the Daytona, the 550 Maranello. Another first came from Lotus with the Esprit finally gaining the V8 it had deserved for so long (even if it did still sound like a 4 !). TVR followed up the Griffith's success with the superfast Cerbera (0-100mph in 9 seconds for just £40,000) and Porsche gave us the last of the air cooled 911s, the brilliant 993 Turbo plus the wild Le Mans inspired GT2.

1996 saw Lotus going back to their roots with the classic Elise. Endowed with a modestly powered engine, the Elise still managed lively acceleration and superb handling thanks to it's overall light weight. Porsche, meanwhile, seemed to have lost the plot! While no-one can argue that their re-working of the 911, the 996, was an excellent car it seemed to have turned from a seat of your pants supercar into a softened up GT overnight.

As the millennium came to a close a new breed of rally bred supercar started to emerge from Japan. The Subaru Impreza Turbo led the way, going from cult hero to mainstream bargain supercar in a few short years, followed by it's close rival the technology laden Mitsubishi Lancer Evo and second generation Nissan Skyline GTR.

The year 2000 bought us two very different styles of supercar. The first was the minimalist approach, epitomized by the superlight Caterham R500. A modest 230bhp, but in a body weighing little more than 1000lbs meant blistering acceleration. The R500 was joined by a new family of lightweight cars all powered by powerful motorbike engines offering stunning acceleration through sequential bike gearboxes, the definitive example being the awesome Radical Supersport.

The second approach was the old fashioned mega-power in a gorgeous low, wide body. The new Pagani Zonda C12 S is a perfect example. Modern, detailed styling and a powerful 540bhp V12 pushing the newcomer to a 215mph top speed. But perhaps the ultimate came in the form of the new Porsche 996 Turbo. It may not have had the looks or driver involvement of it's predecessors but it may well have been the fastest point to point supercar ever created, and that it could be used as your everyday transport was nothing short of amazing.

As we look back on 40 years of supercar advancement, the future looks surprisingly bright. With new, more powerful models on the way from marques such as Ferrari with the Enzo, Porsche's Carrera GT and Bugatti's 1000bhp Veyron, along with McLaren worrying efforts from the likes of Koenigsegg and B Engineering's Edonis, we can all be optimistic that the supercar will still be with us in another 40 years to come!

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History
Nicholas II' Packard Twin-6 with Kégresse track
One of the first modified off-road vehicles was the Kégresse track, a conversion undertaken first by Adolphe Kégresse, who designed the original while working for Czar Nicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916.[2] The system uses an unusual caterpillar track which has a flexible belt rather than interlocking metal segments. It can be fitted to a conventional car or truck to turn it into a half-track suitable for use over rough or soft ground.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned to his native France where the system was used on Citroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road and military vehicles. The Citroën company sponsored several overland expeditions with their vehicles crossing North Africa and Central Asia.

After World War II, a huge surplus of light off-road vehicles like the Jeep and heavier lorries were available on the market.[citation needed] The Jeeps in particular were popular with buyers who used them as utility vehicles. This was also the start of off-roading as a hobby. The wartime Jeeps soon wore out, though, and the Jeep company started to produce civilian derivatives, closely followed by similar vehicles from British Land Rover and Japanese Toyota, Datsun/Nissan, Suzuki, and Mitsubishi. These were all alike: small, compact, four wheel drive vehicles with at most a small hardtop to protect the occupants from the elements.[citation needed]

From the 1960s and onward, more comfortable vehicles were produced.[citation needed] For several years they were popular with rural buyers due to their off-road and load-lugging capabilities.[citation needed] The U.S. Jeep Wagoneer and the Ford Bronco, the British Range Rover, and the station wagon-bodied Japanese Toyota Land Cruiser, Nissan Patrol and Suzuki Lj's series were all essentially just station wagon bodies on light truck frames with four wheel drive drivetrains. Later, during the 1990s, manufacturers started to add even more luxuries to bring those off-road vehicles on par with regular cars. This eventually evolved into what we call the SUV today. It also evolved into the newer Crossover vehicle, where utility and off-road capability was sacrificed for better on-road handling and luxury.

[edit] Technical

Swedish Hägglunds Bv206 with wide rubber tracks
To be able to drive off the pavement, off-road vehicles need several characteristics: They need to have a low ground pressure, so as not to sink into soft ground, they need ground clearance to not get hung up on obstacles, and they need to keep their wheels or tracks on the ground so as not to lose traction.[citation needed]

Wheeled vehicles accomplish this by having a suitable balance of large or additional tires combined with tall and flexible suspension.

Tracked vehicles accomplish this by having wide tracks and a flexible suspension on the road wheels.[citation needed]

Russian GAZ-34039
The choice of wheels versus tracks are one of cost and suitability. A tracked drivetrain is more expensive and costly in terms of maintenance. Wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and give a higher top speed. For pure off-road capabilities, the tracked drivetrain has the edge.[citation needed]

Most off-road vehicles are fitted with especially low gearing.[citation needed] This allows the operator to make the most of the engine's available power while moving slowly through challenging terrain. A combustion engine coupled to a normal gearbox often has an output speed too high to be usable. The vehicle often has one of two things, either a very low ("granny") first gear (like the all wheel drive Volkswagen Transporter versions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, called a reduction drive. Some vehicles, like the Bv206 in the picture on the right, also have torque converters to further reduce the gearing.[3]

Many wheeled off-road vehicles have four-wheel drive to keep traction on slippery surfaces; however, in vehicles designed for use both on and off road, this may be changeable so that the vehicle have fewer drive wheels when driven on the road.

[edit] Criticism of off-road vehicles

[edit] Safety

Main article: Criticism of sport utility vehicles

SUV's are built with higher ground clearance for off-road use and thus have a higher center of gravity,[4] therefore increasing the risk of rollover. Research has shown that whenever an SUV turns, the vehicle's mass resists the turn and carries the weight forward, thus allowing the traction from the tires to create a lateral centripetal force as the vehicle continues through the turn. The conflict between the top weight of the SUV's desire to go straight while the friction of the tires on the road cause the bottom of the vehicle to move away and out from under the vehicle during a turn.[5]

Pickups and SUVs are more likely to be in rollover accidents than passenger cars. According to a study conducted in the United States, pickups have twice the fatality rate of cars and SUVs have nearly triple the fatality rate in rollover accidents.[6] Of vehicles in the United States, light trucks (including SUVs) represent 36 percent of all registered vehicles. They are involved in about half of the fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars, and 80 percent of these fatalities are to occupants of the passenger cars.[6]

In the United States, the number of ORV users since 1972 has climbed sevenfold—from five million to 36 million in 2000.[7] Government policies that protect wilderness but also allow recreational ORV use have been the subject of some debate within the United States and other countries.[8]

All trail and off-trail activities impact natural vegetation and wildlife, which can lead to erosion, invasive species, habitat loss, and ultimately species loss,[9][10] decreasing an ecosystem's ability to maintain homeostasis. [11] ORV's cause greater stress to the environment than foot traffic alone, and ORV operators who attempt to test their vehicles against natural obstacles can do significantly more damage then those who follow legal trails.[12][13] Illegal use of off-road vehicles has been identified as a serious land management problem ranked with dumping garbage and other forms of vandalism.[14] Many user organizations, such as Tread Lightly! and the Sierra Club, publish and encourage appropriate trail ethics.[15]

ORVs have also been criticized for producing more pollution in areas that might normally have none. In addition to noise pollution that can cause hearing impairment and stress in wildlife,[16] according to the U.S. Forest Service, old-style two-stroke engines (no longer a component of new off-road vehicles, although some are still in use) "emit about 20 to 33 percent of the consumed fuel through the exhaust" and "discharge from two-stroke snowmobile engines can lead to indirect pollutant deposition into the top layer of snow and subsequently into the associated surface and ground water."[17][18] In 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency adopted emissions standards for all-terrain vehicles that "when fully implemented in 2012...are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons of air pollution each year--the equivalent of removing the pollution from more than 32 million cars every year."[19][20]
Off Road Vehicle Erosion

Negative environmental effects caused by a motorcycle to a portion of the Los Padres National Forest.

Negative environmental effects that occurred when off-road vehicle drivers deliberately left the posted trail. Anza-Borrego Desert State Park.

Jeep CJin action
Common commercial off-road vehicles include four wheel drive pickup trucks like the Ford F-Series, Chevrolet Silverado, GMC Sierra, Toyota Hilux, Chevrolet C/K and Dodge Ram. In addition, light trucks with station wagon-like bodies, which have been very popular since the 1980s, are common. These include the Chevrolet Blazer, Chevrolet Tahoe, Dodge Ramcharger, FIAT Campagnola, Ford Bronco, Jeep Cherokee, Jeep Wrangler, International Scout, Mitsubishi Pajero, Isuzu Trooper, Rodeo Amigo, IVECO Massif, Land Rover Defender and Discovery, Mercedes-Benz G-Class, Suzuki Jimny/Samurai Suzuki Vitara/Sidekick/Grand Vitara, Range Rover, Nissan Patrol Xterra, Lada Niva, Toyota Land Cruiser and Toyota 4Runner. A number of those models have now become luxury SUV's with reduced off-road capability.

A number of military vehicles have also seen civilian use, including the Jeep CJ and the AM General Hummer. Some, like the early Land Rovers, were adapted to military use from civilian specifications.

Specialised commonly available off-road vehicles include ATVs (All Terrain Vehicles), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers, and sandrails.

A typical ATV. The ergonomics are very similar to motorcycles, with a saddle and handlebar.

Heavily modified Chevrolet Blazer typical of the United States hobbyist off-roading scene

European militaries and utilities have used Land Rover Defenders, Haflingers, Pinzgauers, Volvo L3314, and Mercedes-Benz Unimogs for all-terrain transportation. The Portuguese UMM Alter is less common.

The military market for off-road vehicles used to be large, but, since the fall of the Iron Curtain in the 1990s, it has dried up to some extent. The U.S. Jeep, developed during World War II, coined the word many people use for any type of light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the 1980s on was the AM General HMMWV. The Eastern Bloc used the GAZ-69 and UAZ-469 in similar roles.












History

Enzo Ferrari was born on February 18, 1898 near Modena, Italy. When he was 10 his father took him to an automobile race in Bologna. After attending a number of other races, he decided he wanted to become a racing car driver.
While working at a small carmaker involved with converting war surplus, Ferrari took up racing. In 1919 he finished ninth at the Targa Florio. He ended up landing a job with Alfa Romeo and drove a modified production car in the 1920 Targa Florio. Ferrario managed to finish second.
In 1923 while racing at the Circuit of Sivocci at Ravenna he was approached by Count Enrico and Countess Paolina Baracca, the parents of the heroic Italian pilot Francesco Baracca. Francesco was known as the Italian ace of aces. He died on Mount Montello during the war. His parents gave Ferrari their son's squadron badge, which was the famous prancing horse on a yellow shield.
Enzo Ferrari was connected with Alfa Romeo for many years, however, he built only a few sports cars bearing his name and his famous prancing horse badge. In 1929 Enzo formed the Scuderia Ferrari with the aim of organizing racing for members. The Scuderia Ferrari team competed in 22 events and scored 8 victories and several good placings.
In 1940 Enzo Ferrari left Alfa Romeo and started a new company Auto-Avio Costruzioni Ferrari. During World War II the Ferrari workshop moved from Modena to Maranello. The workshop became a victim of the war in 1944 - it was leveled by bombs. A year after the war in 1946 the shop was rebuilt and work began on the first ever Ferrari motorcar, the 125 Sport. This car started a grand tradition of winning for Ferrari. Since it's first race in 1947, Ferrari's have had over 5,000 successes on race tracks around the globe.
In 1969 Enzo Ferrari sold 50% of Ferrari's share capital to the Fiat group. That figure grew to 90% in 1988. Enzo Ferrari died at the age of 90 in Modena on August 14, 1988.


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